THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL SYSTEM：CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN INTENATIONAL LAW【2025|PDF|Epub|mobi|kindle电子书版本百度云盘下载】

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Part Ⅰ: The Framework1

1.Structures of the international legal system3

1.1 Introduction3

1.2 Methodology:a rules-based approach7

1.3 The engagement of individuals in the international legal system:structural issues10

(a) Prelude:differing legal structures in the early period10

(b) The long nineteenth century13

(c) The inter-war period16

(d) The post-1945 international legal system26

1.4 International legal personality as the measure of engagement in the international legal system29

(a) Development of the doctrine of subjects:the Reparations Opinion30

(b) Sui generis subjects of international law32

(c) The individual as a 'subject' of international law36

1.5 Challenges to the centrality of states in the international legal system:alternative approaches38

(a) Positivism in its classical and modern forms40

(b) Process approaches42

(c) 'Cosmopolitanism'43

Part Ⅱ: The Individual in International Law45

2. The individual and international claims47

2.1 Introduction47

2.2 Doctrine and practice pre-191448

(a) Vattel's articulation49

(b) The practice50

(ⅰ) Arbitration of specifically defined diplomatic protection claims52

(ⅱ) Claims tribunals and commissions54

(A) Control of the claim55

(B) Payment of awards57

(C) Binding effect of the decision on an inter-state basis58

(D) Standing before the International Prize Court and the Central American Court of Justice60

(c) Conclusions62

2.3 Doctrine and practice in the inter-war period65

(a) The development of doctrine65

(b) The practice of international claims tribunals71

(ⅰ) Mixed arbitral tribunals after the First World War72

(A) The mixed arbitral tribunals under the Peace Treaties72

(B) The US Mixed Claims Commissions73

(C) The Upper Silesian Mixed Commission and Arbitral Tribunal74

(ⅱ) Mexican Claims Commissions 1923-193277

(c) Conclusions83

2.4 Diplomatic protection and individual claims after 194585

(a) The development of doctrine85

(ⅰ) Diplomatic protection85

(ⅱ) Individual rights94

(b) International claims tribunals and commissions97

(ⅰ) Post-Second World War commissions and tribunals97

(ⅱ) The Iran-US Claims Tribunal98

(ⅲ) The UN Compensation Commission101

(c) Investment treaty arbitration103

(d) Conclusions119

2.5 Conclusions:the position of the individual relative to international claims120

Appendix Ⅰ Arbitration of diplomatic protection claims 1794-1914124

Appendix Ⅱ International claims tribunals and commissions 1794-1914134

Appendix Ⅲ International claims tribunals and commissions 1919-1939162

3. The individual in international humanitarian law176

3.1 Introduction176

3.2 The individual in international armed conflict177

(a) Regulation of international war pre-1914177

(b) Developments in the inter-war period180

(c) The individual in international armed conflict after 1945181

(ⅰ) The 1949 Geneva Conventions182

(ⅱ) Additional Protocol I of 1977189

(ⅲ) Customary international humanitarian law191

(ⅳ) International human rights law applicable in international armed conflict193

3.3 The individual in internal armed conflict196

(a) Regulation of civil war pre-1914198

(b) The inter-war period206

(c) The individual in internal armed conflict after 1945208

(ⅰ) Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions208

(ⅱ) Additional Protocol II213

(ⅲ) Customary international humanitarian law219

(ⅳ) International human rights law applicable in non-international armed conflict222

3.4 Conclusions:the position of the individual in international humanitarian law224

4. The individual in international criminal law229

4.1 Introduction229

4.2 Individual responsibility before 1919230

4.3 The inter-war period:the Kaiser and the Leipzig trials234

4.4 Individual responsibility after 1945241

(a) Post-Second World War prosecutions241

(ⅰ) The Nuremberg Tribunal241

(ⅱ) The Tokyo Tribunal249

(ⅲ) Control Council Law No.10 trials and military commissions in the Pacific251

(b) The 'Nuremberg Principles'253

(c) Development of substantive international criminal law in the United Nations258

(d) International criminal tribunals and courts260

(ⅰ) Ad hoc international tribunals261

(ⅱ) The International Criminal Court267

(ⅲ) International crimes before 'hybrid' and domestic courts271

4.5 Conclusions:the position of the individual in international criminal law274

5. The individual in international human rights law278

5.1 Introduction278

5.2 Antecedents:the case of slavery279

5.3 Protection of individuals during the inter-war period282

(a) Minorities282

(b) Inhabitants of mandated territories287

(c) Refugees291

(d) The International Labour Organisation294

(e) Conclusions295

5.4 International protection of human rights after 1945296

(a) Human rights rhetoric during the Second World War296

(b) Preparation for an international bill of rights299

(c) The United Nations Charter:a promise postponed301

(d) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights306

(e) From moral imperative to legal articulation:state obligations,individual rights and international enforcement in the European system307

(f) Human rights and state obligations in the UN system312

(ⅰ) Subject-specific conventions313

(ⅱ) The International Covenants315

(ⅲ) Declarations of specific rights320

(ⅳ) Special procedures before the Human Rights Commission (now the Human Rights Council)321

(g) Customary international human rights law:from soft to hard law?322

(h) Jus cogens human rights norms326

(i) The evolution of enforcement mechanisms:the regional systems327

(j) Conclusions327

5.5 Conclusions:the position of the individual in international human rights law337

Part Ⅲ: Reassessing the Framework341

6. Reflections on the structures of the international legal system343

6.1 Introduction343

6.2 Historical development of the position of the individual in the international legal system343

(a) The nineteenth century international legal system343

(b) The inter-war period346

(c) The post-1945 international legal system349

6.3 International legal personality as the measure of engagement:the case of the individual353

(a) 'Subjects' versus 'objects'353

(b) Locating individuals:rights,obligations and capacities358

(c) Moving from the actor to the action?The notion of international law relationships363

6.4 Reflections on structural transition in the international legal system:the case of the individual365

(a) Relative openness and flexibility of the system365

(b) Forces for structural change:solutions above theories367

(c) States in the international legal system369

Bibliography373

Index394